CompTIA Linux+ XK0-005

Kernel, Shell, Userspace & FHS

• The Linux kernel manages hardware resources: CPU scheduling, memory management, device drivers, and system calls
• The shell (bash, zsh, sh) is the user-facing interpreter that parses commands and communicates with the kernel via system calls
• Userspace contains all processes running outside the kernel — daemons, applications, and libraries (glibc)
• The Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (FHS) defines the directory tree: /bin (essential binaries), /sbin (system binaries), /etc (config files), /var (variable data), /usr (user programs), /tmp (temporary), /proc (kernel/process virtual FS), /sys (device/driver info)
• Major distro families: Red Hat (RHEL, CentOS, Fedora, Rocky, AlmaLinux) — RPM/DNF; Debian (Ubuntu, Mint) — DEB/APT; SUSE (openSUSE, SLES) — RPM/Zypper; Arch — Pacman

Boot Sequence

• BIOS/UEFI performs POST (Power-On Self-Test), initializes hardware, then loads the bootloader from MBR (BIOS) or EFI partition (UEFI)
• GRUB2 (GRand Unified Bootloader v2) is the standard Linux bootloader — loads the kernel and initramfs into memory
• GRUB2 config location: /boot/grub2/grub.cfg (RHEL/Fedora) or /boot/grub/grub.cfg (Debian/Ubuntu)
• Never edit grub.cfg directly — edit /etc/default/grub and regenerate with grub2-mkconfig -o /boot/grub2/grub.cfg
• Key /etc/default/grub parameters: GRUB_TIMEOUT (menu delay), GRUB_CMDLINE_LINUX (kernel parameters), GRUB_DEFAULT (default entry)

GRUB2 Rescue Mode

• If GRUB fails to find its modules, you drop to grub rescue> prompt
• grub rescue> ls — list detected partitions (e.g., (hd0,gpt1), (hd0,gpt2))
• grub rescue> ls (hd0,gpt2)/ — check for /boot/grub2/ directory
• grub rescue> set root=(hd0,gpt2) — set the root partition
• grub rescue> set prefix=(hd0,gpt2)/boot/grub2 — point to GRUB modules
• grub rescue> insmod normal then grub rescue> normal — load normal GRUB mode

Targets Replace SysV Runlevels

• poweroff.target — runlevel 0, system halt
• rescue.target — runlevel 1 / single-user mode; minimal services, root shell for recovery
• multi-user.target — runlevel 3; full multi-user, no GUI; standard for servers
• graphical.target — runlevel 5; multi-user with desktop environment
• reboot.target — runlevel 6, system restart
• systemctl get-default — view current default target
• systemctl set-default multi-user.target — change default target persistently
• systemctl isolate rescue.target — switch to rescue mode immediately (non-persistent)

Purpose of initramfs

• The initramfs (initial RAM filesystem) is a compressed cpio archive loaded into memory at boot before the real root filesystem is mounted
• It provides the minimal tools needed to: load kernel modules for storage controllers, set up LVM/RAID, unlock encrypted volumes, and mount the real root filesystem
• Lives at /boot/initramfs-$(uname -r).img (RHEL) or /boot/initrd.img-$(uname -r) (Debian)

Rebuilding initramfs

• RHEL/Fedora: dracut --force /boot/initramfs-$(uname -r).img $(uname -r)
• Debian/Ubuntu: update-initramfs -u -k $(uname -r)
• Necessary after: adding kernel modules to initramfs, changing storage drivers, modifying /etc/crypttab
• lsinitrd /boot/initramfs-$(uname -r).img | less — inspect initramfs contents (RHEL)

Module Management Commands

• lsmod — list currently loaded kernel modules and their dependencies
• modinfo MODULE — display module metadata: description, author, parameters, filename
• modprobe MODULE — load a module and its dependencies automatically
• modprobe -r MODULE — remove (unload) a module and unused dependencies
• rmmod MODULE — remove a module directly (does not handle dependencies)
• insmod /path/to/module.ko — insert a module by file path (no dependency resolution)

Persistent Module Configuration

• /etc/modprobe.d/ — directory for module configuration files (e.g., aliases, options, blacklisting)
• Blacklist a module: create /etc/modprobe.d/blacklist-MODULE.conf with blacklist MODULE
• Set module options: options MODULE param=value in a conf file under /etc/modprobe.d/
• Modules to load at boot: list names in /etc/modules-load.d/*.conf files

rpm Command Essentials

• rpm -ivh package.rpm — install a package (-i) with verbose output (-v) and progress bar (-h)
• rpm -Uvh package.rpm — upgrade a package (installs if not present)
• rpm -e PACKAGENAME — erase (remove) an installed package
• rpm -qa — query all installed packages; combine with grep to search
• rpm -qi PACKAGENAME — detailed info about an installed package
• rpm -ql PACKAGENAME — list files owned by an installed package
• rpm -qf /path/to/file — which package owns a given file
• rpm -V PACKAGENAME — verify package integrity (checks checksums, permissions, ownership)
• rpm --import /etc/pki/rpm-gpg/RPM-GPG-KEY-redhat-release — import a GPG signing key

Common DNF Commands

• dnf install PACKAGE — install a package and resolve dependencies
• dnf remove PACKAGE — remove a package
• dnf update — update all packages to latest available versions
• dnf update PACKAGE — update a specific package
• dnf search KEYWORD — search for packages by name or description
• dnf info PACKAGE — show detailed package metadata
• dnf provides /path/to/file — find which package provides a file or command
• dnf history — show transaction history; dnf history undo N reverses transaction N
• dnf group install "Development Tools" — install a package group
• dnf repolist — list enabled repositories

Repository Configuration

• Repo files live in /etc/yum.repos.d/ with .repo extension
• Key fields: [repo-id], name, baseurl or mirrorlist, enabled=1, gpgcheck=1, gpgkey=
• dnf config-manager --add-repo URL — add a new repository
• dnf config-manager --enable REPO_ID / --disable REPO_ID — toggle repos

dpkg Command Essentials

• dpkg -i package.deb — install a .deb package file
• dpkg -r PACKAGENAME — remove a package (keeps config files)
• dpkg -P PACKAGENAME — purge a package (removes config files too)
• dpkg -l — list all installed packages with status codes
• dpkg -L PACKAGENAME — list files installed by a package
• dpkg -S /path/to/file — which package owns a given file
• dpkg --get-selections | grep PACKAGENAME — check package installation status

APT Package Manager

• apt update — refresh the local package index (downloads metadata from repos)
• apt upgrade — install available package updates
• apt install PACKAGE — install a package with dependencies
• apt remove PACKAGE — remove package, keep config; apt purge PACKAGE removes config too
• apt autoremove — remove packages that were installed as dependencies but are no longer needed
• apt search KEYWORD — search packages; apt-cache search KEYWORD (older syntax)
• apt show PACKAGE — show package details
• Repo sources: /etc/apt/sources.list and /etc/apt/sources.list.d/*.list

Core Zypper Commands

• zypper install PACKAGE (or zypper in PACKAGE) — install a package
• zypper remove PACKAGE (or zypper rm PACKAGE) — remove a package
• zypper update (or zypper up) — update installed packages
• zypper search KEYWORD (or zypper se KEYWORD) — search for packages
• zypper info PACKAGE — display detailed package information
• zypper repos (or zypper lr) — list configured repositories
• zypper addrepo URL ALIAS — add a new repository
• zypper refresh (or zypper ref) — refresh repository metadata

The Classic Build Workflow

• Download source tarball: wget https://example.com/app-1.0.tar.gz then tar -xzf app-1.0.tar.gz
• ./configure — checks for required build dependencies, sets compile options, generates Makefile
• ./configure --prefix=/usr/local — install to a custom directory (default is /usr/local)
• make — compiles the source code using the generated Makefile
• make install — installs compiled binaries to the prefix directory
• make uninstall — remove installed files (if the Makefile supports it)

Build Dependencies

• Common required packages: gcc, make, autoconf, automake, libtool, kernel-devel
• On RHEL: dnf groupinstall "Development Tools" installs the full toolchain
• On Debian: apt install build-essential
• Missing header errors during ./configure mean a -devel / -dev package is not installed

User Account Commands

• useradd USERNAME — create a new user; add -m to create home dir, -s /bin/bash to set shell, -u UID for specific UID
• usermod -aG GROUP USERNAME — add user to a supplementary group (-a is critical — appends instead of replacing)
• usermod -s /sbin/nologin USERNAME — disable login shell for a service account
• userdel USERNAME — delete a user; userdel -r USERNAME also removes home directory and mail spool
• id USERNAME — display UID, GID, and all supplementary groups for a user

Group Commands & Key Files

• groupadd GROUPNAME — create a new group; groupmod -n NEWNAME OLDNAME — rename; groupdel GROUPNAME — delete
• newgrp GROUPNAME — switch active primary group in the current session without logging out
• /etc/passwd — format: username:x:UID:GID:comment:home:shell
• /etc/shadow — format: username:hashed_password:last_change:min:max:warn:inactive:expire
• /etc/group — format: groupname:x:GID:member1,member2

passwd and chage

• passwd USERNAME — set or change a user's password; passwd -l USERNAME locks, passwd -u USERNAME unlocks
• chage -M 90 USERNAME — set maximum password age to 90 days
• chage -m 7 USERNAME — set minimum days before password can be changed
• chage -W 14 USERNAME — warn user 14 days before password expiration
• chage -E 2026-12-31 USERNAME — set account expiration date
• chage -l USERNAME — list all aging information for a user

PAM & Password Complexity

• PAM (Pluggable Authentication Modules) controls authentication via /etc/pam.d/ config files
• pam_pwquality module enforces password complexity (length, uppercase, digits, special characters)
• Configure in /etc/security/pwquality.conf: minlen=12, ucredit=-1, dcredit=-1, ocredit=-1
• /etc/login.defs — system-wide defaults: PASS_MAX_DAYS, PASS_MIN_DAYS, PASS_WARN_AGE, UID_MIN, UID_MAX

chmod, chown, chgrp

• Permission bits: owner (u), group (g), others (o); each has read (r=4), write (w=2), execute (x=1)
• chmod 755 file — numeric: owner rwx (7), group r-x (5), others r-x (5)
• chmod u+x,g-w file — symbolic: add execute to owner, remove write from group
• chmod -R 750 /dir — recursive permission change
• chown USER:GROUP file — change owner and group; chown USER file — change owner only
• chgrp GROUP file — change group ownership only

umask

• umask defines default permissions by masking bits from 666 (files) and 777 (directories)
• Default umask 022: files get 644 (rw-r--r--), directories get 755 (rwxr-xr-x)
• umask 027: files get 640, directories get 750 — more restrictive, suitable for shared servers
• Set persistently in /etc/bashrc or ~/.bashrc

SUID, SGID, and Sticky Bit

• SUID (Set User ID) — on an executable: the process runs as the file owner, not the invoking user. Example: /usr/bin/passwd runs as root. Set with chmod 4755 file or chmod u+s file
• SGID (Set Group ID) — on an executable: process runs with the file's group. On a directory: new files/directories inherit the directory's group (not the creator's primary group). Set with chmod 2755 file or chmod g+s dir
• Sticky Bit — on a directory: only the file owner, directory owner, or root can delete/rename files within it, even if others have write permission. Classic use: /tmp. Set with chmod 1777 dir or chmod +t dir
• Display: ls -l shows s in place of x for SUID/SGID, t in place of x for sticky bit in others position

setfacl and getfacl

• getfacl file — display the full ACL for a file or directory
• setfacl -m u:USERNAME:rwx file — grant a specific user rwx on a file
• setfacl -m g:GROUPNAME:r-- file — grant a group read-only access
• setfacl -x u:USERNAME file — remove a user's ACL entry
• setfacl -b file — remove all ACL entries (except base permissions)
• setfacl -m mask::r-- file — set the effective rights mask (limits maximum ACL permissions)

Default ACLs for Directories

• setfacl -d -m u:USERNAME:rwx /dir — set a default ACL (-d): new files/directories created inside inherit this ACL
• A + sign in ls -l output indicates ACL entries beyond standard permissions are set
• Filesystem must be mounted with ACL support; ext4 and XFS support ACLs natively; check with tune2fs -l /dev/sdX | grep "Default mount"

Partition Table Types

• MBR (Master Boot Record) — legacy; max 4 primary partitions or 3 primary + 1 extended (with logical partitions); max disk size 2 TB
• GPT (GUID Partition Table) — modern; supports up to 128 partitions per disk; required for disks over 2 TB; used with UEFI
• fdisk /dev/sdX — interactive MBR partition editor; n (new), d (delete), t (change type), w (write), q (quit)
• gdisk /dev/sdX — interactive GPT partition editor (same command letters as fdisk)
• parted /dev/sdX — supports both MBR and GPT; non-interactive mode: parted /dev/sdX mklabel gpt
• lsblk — list block devices and partition layout; blkid — show UUIDs and filesystem types

Creating Filesystems

• mkfs.ext4 /dev/sdX1 — format a partition as ext4; -L LABEL to add a volume label
• mkfs.xfs /dev/sdX1 — format as XFS (default on RHEL 7+)
• tune2fs -L NEWLABEL /dev/sdX1 — change ext2/3/4 volume label; tune2fs -c 50 — set max mount count before fsck
• xfs_admin -L NEWLABEL /dev/sdX1 — change XFS volume label
• e2fsck -f /dev/sdX1 — check and repair an ext filesystem (must be unmounted)
• xfs_repair /dev/sdX1 — check and repair an XFS filesystem (must be unmounted)

Mounting & /etc/fstab

• mount /dev/sdX1 /mnt/data — mount temporarily; mount -o ro /dev/sdX1 /mnt — mount read-only
• umount /mnt/data — unmount; use lsof /mnt/data or fuser /mnt/data if "device busy"
• /etc/fstab format: UUID=... /mountpoint fstype options dump pass
• Use UUIDs (from blkid) in fstab, not device names — device names can change across reboots
• Common mount options: defaults, noatime, nosuid, noexec, ro
• mount -a — mount all entries in fstab that aren't already mounted (tests fstab syntax)

LVM Layer Architecture

• PV (Physical Volume) — raw disks or partitions initialized for LVM use
• VG (Volume Group) — pool of storage combining one or more PVs
• LV (Logical Volume) — virtual partitions carved from a VG; flexible and resizable

LVM Commands

• pvcreate /dev/sdX — initialize a physical volume
• vgcreate myvg /dev/sdX — create a volume group; vgextend myvg /dev/sdY — add a PV to VG
• lvcreate -L 20G -n mylv myvg — create a 20G logical volume
• lvextend -L +10G /dev/myvg/mylv — increase LV size by 10G
• After lvextend on ext4: resize2fs /dev/myvg/mylv to grow the filesystem
• After lvextend on XFS: xfs_growfs /mountpoint to grow the filesystem (XFS grow is online)
• lvreduce -L -5G /dev/myvg/mylv — decrease LV size (ext4 only, must unmount first)
• pvs / vgs / lvs — brief display of PV/VG/LV information
• pvdisplay / vgdisplay / lvdisplay — detailed output
• lvcreate -L 5G -s -n snap /dev/myvg/mylv — create a snapshot of an LV

RAID Levels

• RAID 0 (striping) — performance, no redundancy; min 2 disks; if one disk fails, all data is lost
• RAID 1 (mirroring) — full redundancy, 50% usable capacity; min 2 disks; can lose N-1 disks
• RAID 5 (distributed parity) — min 3 disks; can lose 1 disk; usable capacity = (N-1) disks
• RAID 6 (double parity) — min 4 disks; can lose 2 disks; usable = (N-2) disks
• RAID 10 (stripe of mirrors) — min 4 disks; high performance + redundancy; can lose 1 disk per mirror set

mdadm Commands

• mdadm --create /dev/md0 --level=5 --raid-devices=3 /dev/sd{b,c,d} — create RAID 5
• cat /proc/mdstat — view RAID status and rebuild progress
• mdadm --detail /dev/md0 — detailed RAID array info
• mdadm --add /dev/md0 /dev/sde — add a hot spare or replacement drive
• mdadm --fail /dev/md0 /dev/sdb — mark a drive as failed; mdadm --remove /dev/md0 /dev/sdb — remove it
• /etc/mdadm.conf or /etc/mdadm/mdadm.conf — persist RAID config across reboots

Creating and Managing Swap

• mkswap /dev/sdX2 — format a partition as swap space
• swapon /dev/sdX2 — activate swap; swapoff /dev/sdX2 — deactivate
• swapon -s (or swapon --show) — list active swap devices with priority and usage
• Persist in /etc/fstab: UUID=... none swap sw 0 0
• Swap file: fallocate -l 2G /swapfile → chmod 600 /swapfile → mkswap /swapfile → swapon /swapfile
• cat /proc/sys/vm/swappiness — view swappiness (default 60); lower values reduce swap aggressiveness
• sysctl vm.swappiness=10 — set swappiness temporarily; persist in /etc/sysctl.d/99-swap.conf

cryptsetup & LUKS

• cryptsetup luksFormat /dev/sdX1 — initialize a LUKS encrypted container (destroys data)
• cryptsetup luksOpen /dev/sdX1 cryptdata — unlock the container; creates /dev/mapper/cryptdata
• mkfs.ext4 /dev/mapper/cryptdata — create filesystem on the unlocked device
• mount /dev/mapper/cryptdata /mnt/secure — mount the encrypted filesystem
• cryptsetup luksClose cryptdata — lock/close the container
• cryptsetup luksDump /dev/sdX1 — display LUKS header info (slots used, cipher)
• /etc/crypttab — maps LUKS devices to mapper names for auto-unlock at boot (with keyfile or passphrase prompt)

Replacing Legacy net-tools

• The ip command (from the iproute2 package) replaces deprecated tools: ifconfig, route, arp, netstat
• ip addr show (or ip a) — display IP addresses on all interfaces
• ip addr add 192.168.1.10/24 dev eth0 — assign an IP address (non-persistent)
• ip addr del 192.168.1.10/24 dev eth0 — remove an IP address
• ip link show — display network interface state; ip link set eth0 up/down — bring interface up/down
• ip route show (or ip r) — display the routing table
• ip route add default via 192.168.1.1 — add a default gateway (non-persistent)
• ip route add 10.0.0.0/8 via 192.168.1.254 dev eth0 — add a static route
• ip neigh show — display the ARP/neighbor cache

nmcli Commands

• nmcli connection show — list all configured network connections
• nmcli connection show --active — list only active connections
• nmcli connection up CONNECTION_NAME — activate a connection
• nmcli connection down CONNECTION_NAME — deactivate a connection
• nmcli connection modify CONNECTION_NAME ipv4.addresses 192.168.1.50/24 — set static IP
• nmcli connection modify CONNECTION_NAME ipv4.gateway 192.168.1.1 — set gateway
• nmcli connection modify CONNECTION_NAME ipv4.dns "8.8.8.8 8.8.4.4" — set DNS servers
• nmcli connection modify CONNECTION_NAME ipv4.method manual — switch from DHCP to static
• nmcli device wifi list — list available Wi-Fi networks
• nmtui — text-based interactive UI for NetworkManager; useful when no GUI is available

Config File Location

• Connection profiles: /etc/NetworkManager/system-connections/ (keyfile format in RHEL 8+)
• Restart networking: nmcli connection reload then nmcli connection up CONNECTION

Key Files & Tools

• /etc/hosts — static hostname-to-IP mappings; checked before DNS by default
• /etc/resolv.conf — specifies DNS servers (nameserver 8.8.8.8) and search domains (search example.com)
• /etc/nsswitch.conf — controls lookup order; the hosts: line (typically files dns) determines whether /etc/hosts is checked before DNS
• dig DOMAIN — detailed DNS query; dig @8.8.8.8 DOMAIN — query specific server; dig -x IP — reverse lookup
• nslookup DOMAIN — simple DNS query (older tool); interactive mode: nslookup then server 8.8.8.8
• host DOMAIN — quick DNS lookup; host IP — reverse DNS
• systemd-resolve --status — show DNS configuration used by systemd-resolved

iptables Fundamentals

• Three main chains: INPUT (packets destined for the local system), OUTPUT (packets originating from local system), FORWARD (routed packets)
• iptables -L -n -v --line-numbers — list all rules with line numbers and packet counts
• iptables -A INPUT -p tcp --dport 22 -j ACCEPT — append rule to allow SSH
• iptables -I INPUT 1 -p tcp --dport 80 -j ACCEPT — insert rule at position 1
• iptables -D INPUT 3 — delete rule by line number
• iptables -A INPUT -s 10.0.0.5 -j DROP — drop all traffic from a source IP
• iptables -P INPUT DROP — set default policy to DROP (deny-all baseline)
• Persist: iptables-save > /etc/iptables/rules.v4; restore: iptables-restore < /etc/iptables/rules.v4

ufw & firewalld

• ufw enable — enable the UFW firewall (Ubuntu/Debian); ufw allow 22/tcp — allow SSH; ufw deny 23 — block telnet
• firewalld — zone-based firewall on RHEL/Fedora; firewall-cmd --list-all — show active zone config
• firewall-cmd --permanent --add-service=http — allow HTTP; --reload applies permanent changes

Generating & Deploying SSH Keys

• ssh-keygen -t ed25519 -C "comment" — generate an Ed25519 key pair (recommended over RSA for new keys)
• ssh-keygen -t rsa -b 4096 — generate 4096-bit RSA key pair
• Private key: ~/.ssh/id_ed25519 (protect with chmod 600); Public key: ~/.ssh/id_ed25519.pub
• ssh-copy-id user@host — copy public key to remote host's ~/.ssh/authorized_keys
• ~/.ssh/authorized_keys on the server: must be chmod 600 and owned by the user
• ~/.ssh/ directory: must be chmod 700 and owned by the user

sshd_config Hardening

• PasswordAuthentication no — disable password auth (force key-based only)
• PermitRootLogin no — prevent direct root login via SSH
• AllowUsers alice bob — whitelist specific users; all others denied
• Port 2222 — change SSH port (security through obscurity; adjust firewall accordingly)
• ClientAliveInterval 300 / ClientAliveCountMax 2 — disconnect idle sessions after 10 minutes
• After editing /etc/ssh/sshd_config: systemctl restart sshd

Essential Diagnostic Commands

• ping -c 4 HOST — test basic connectivity; ping -I eth0 HOST — send from specific interface
• traceroute HOST — show path packets take (hop-by-hop); tracepath HOST — similar but no root required
• ss -tulnp — list listening TCP (t) and UDP (u) sockets with process names; replaces netstat -tulnp
• tcpdump -i eth0 port 80 — capture HTTP traffic; tcpdump -i eth0 -w capture.pcap — write to file
• tcpdump -i eth0 host 10.0.0.5 and tcp — filter by host and protocol
• curl -I https://example.com — fetch HTTP headers only; curl -v URL — verbose output showing TLS handshake
• wget -O /dev/null URL — test download speed; wget --spider URL — check URL without downloading
• nc -zv HOST PORT — test if a TCP port is open (netcat); nc -l 8080 — listen on port 8080

SELinux Modes & Status

• Enforcing — SELinux policy is enforced; violations are blocked and logged
• Permissive — violations are logged but NOT blocked; useful for troubleshooting and policy development
• Disabled — SELinux is completely turned off; requires reboot + relabeling to re-enable
• getenforce — display current mode (Enforcing/Permissive/Disabled)
• setenforce 0 — switch to Permissive (temporary, survives only until reboot)
• setenforce 1 — switch to Enforcing (temporary)
• Persistent mode: edit /etc/selinux/config → set SELINUX=enforcing / permissive / disabled

File Context Management

• ls -Z /var/www/html/ — show SELinux file context labels
• restorecon -Rv /var/www/html/ — restore default SELinux contexts recursively (fixes "wrong context" denials)
• chcon -t httpd_sys_content_t /new/file — change file context temporarily (overridden by restorecon)
• semanage fcontext -a -t httpd_sys_content_t "/newpath(/.*)?" — add a persistent context rule
• restorecon -Rv /newpath — apply the newly added context rule
• getsebool -a | grep httpd — list all SELinux booleans related to httpd
• setsebool -P httpd_can_network_connect on — enable a boolean persistently (-P)

Analyzing Denials

• audit2why < /var/log/audit/audit.log — explain why actions were denied
• audit2allow -M mypolicy < /var/log/audit/audit.log — generate a custom allow policy module from denials
• semodule -i mypolicy.pp — install a custom SELinux policy module

AppArmor Overview & Status

• AppArmor is the MAC (Mandatory Access Control) framework used on Debian/Ubuntu systems (vs SELinux on RHEL)
• aa-status — show AppArmor status: profiles loaded, enforcement mode per profile
• Profile modes: enforce (blocks violations), complain (logs but does not block — like SELinux permissive)
• aa-enforce /etc/apparmor.d/usr.sbin.nginx — put a profile into enforce mode
• aa-complain /etc/apparmor.d/usr.sbin.nginx — put into complain (logging) mode
• Profile files live in: /etc/apparmor.d/
• apparmor_parser -r /etc/apparmor.d/PROFILE — reload a profile after editing
• aa-genprof /path/to/binary — generate a new profile interactively by watching program behavior

GPG Key Management

• gpg --gen-key — generate a new GPG key pair interactively
• gpg --list-keys — list all keys in the public keyring
• gpg --export -a "User Name" > public.key — export public key to ASCII-armored file
• gpg --import public.key — import a public key from a file
• gpg --keyserver keyserver.ubuntu.com --recv-keys KEY_ID — download a key from a keyserver

Encryption, Signing & Verification

• gpg --encrypt -r "Recipient" file — encrypt file for recipient (produces file.gpg)
• gpg --decrypt file.gpg > file — decrypt a file
• gpg --sign file — create a signed version of a file (embedded signature)
• gpg --detach-sign file — create a separate file.sig signature file
• gpg --verify file.sig file — verify a detached signature
• RPM uses GPG to sign packages — rpm -K package.rpm verifies the package signature

PAM-Based Controls

• /etc/pam.d/ — service-specific PAM configuration; system-auth and password-auth are key files on RHEL
• pam_pwquality.so — enforces password complexity rules configured in /etc/security/pwquality.conf
• faillock — PAM module that locks accounts after N failed login attempts; check with faillock --user USERNAME; reset with faillock --user USERNAME --reset
• /etc/security/limits.conf — set per-user/group resource limits: nofile (open files), nproc (processes), memlock (locked memory)
• ulimit -n — show current shell's open file descriptor limit; ulimit -n 65536 — set for current session

sudoers Configuration

• Always edit sudoers with visudo — validates syntax before saving, preventing lockouts
• Format: USER HOST=(RUNAS) COMMANDS — e.g., alice ALL=(ALL) ALL
• Group syntax: %admins ALL=(ALL) ALL
• NOPASSWD: bob ALL=(ALL) NOPASSWD: /usr/bin/systemctl restart nginx
• Restrict to specific commands: carol ALL=(root) /usr/bin/dnf install, /usr/bin/dnf remove
• Include drop-in files: /etc/sudoers.d/ — add separate files here rather than editing /etc/sudoers directly

Key Log Files

• /var/log/auth.log (Debian) or /var/log/secure (RHEL) — authentication events: logins, sudo usage, SSH attempts
• /var/log/messages (RHEL) or /var/log/syslog (Debian) — general system messages
• journalctl -u sshd --since "1 hour ago" — filter systemd journal by unit and time
• journalctl _COMM=sshd — all journal entries from the sshd process
• journalctl -p err — show only error-level messages
• lastb — list bad (failed) login attempts from /var/log/btmp
• last — list successful logins from /var/log/wtmp
• who / w — currently logged-in users

auditd

• auditd — the Linux audit daemon; writes security events to /var/log/audit/audit.log
• auditctl -w /etc/passwd -p wa -k passwd_changes — watch /etc/passwd for write and attribute changes
• ausearch -k passwd_changes — search audit log by key
• ausearch -ua USERNAME — search audit events by user
• aureport --summary — summary of audit events by category
• Persistent rules: /etc/audit/rules.d/audit.rules

Script Structure & Variables

• Always start with a shebang: #!/bin/bash (or #!/usr/bin/env bash for portability)
• Make executable: chmod +x script.sh; run with ./script.sh or bash script.sh
• Variables: NAME="Alice" (no spaces around =); reference with $NAME or ${NAME}
• Command substitution: DATE=$(date +%Y-%m-%d) — stores command output in variable
• Special variables: $? (exit code of last command), $# (number of arguments), $@ (all arguments as separate strings), $0 (script name), $1-$9 (positional arguments)

Control Flow

• If/elif/else: if [ "$VAR" = "value" ]; then ... elif [ condition ]; then ... else ... fi
• For loop: for FILE in /etc/*.conf; do echo "$FILE"; done
• While loop: while [ $COUNT -lt 10 ]; do ((COUNT++)); done
• Until loop: until ping -c1 HOST >/dev/null 2>&1; do sleep 5; done
• Functions: function check_service() { systemctl is-active "$1" || return 1; }

test Operators

• File tests: -f (regular file), -d (directory), -e (exists), -r (readable), -w (writable), -x (executable), -s (non-empty)
• String tests: -z (zero length / empty), -n (non-zero length / not empty), = (equal), != (not equal)
• Integer comparison: -eq, -ne, -lt, -le, -gt, -ge

Core Text Processing Commands

• grep -E "pattern" file — extended regex search; -i case-insensitive; -r recursive; -v invert match; -l filenames only; -c count matches
• grep -P "\d{3}-\d{4}" file — Perl-compatible regex for complex patterns
• sed 's/old/new/g' file — substitute all occurrences; -i flag edits file in-place; sed -n '5,10p' file — print lines 5–10
• awk '{print $1, $3}' file — print fields 1 and 3; awk -F: '{print $1}' /etc/passwd — use colon as delimiter
• awk '$3 > 1000 {print $1}' /etc/passwd — conditional: print username if UID > 1000
• cut -d: -f1,3 /etc/passwd — cut fields 1 and 3 from colon-delimited file
• sort -k3 -n file — sort numerically by field 3; sort -r reverse order; sort -u unique lines
• uniq -c — count duplicate consecutive lines; always pipe through sort first
• tr 'a-z' 'A-Z' — translate lowercase to uppercase; tr -d '\r' — remove carriage returns
• wc -l file — count lines; wc -w words; wc -c bytes
• head -n 20 file — first 20 lines; tail -n 20 file — last 20 lines; tail -f /var/log/syslog — follow a file live

Core Container Commands

• docker run -d -p 8080:80 --name webserver nginx — run nginx in background, map port 8080→80
• docker ps — list running containers; docker ps -a — all containers including stopped
• docker images — list local images
• docker pull IMAGE:TAG — pull an image from registry
• docker exec -it CONTAINER bash — interactive shell in a running container
• docker logs CONTAINER — view container logs; docker logs -f CONTAINER — follow
• docker stop CONTAINER — gracefully stop; docker rm CONTAINER — remove stopped container
• docker rmi IMAGE — remove an image
• docker run -v /host/path:/container/path IMAGE — bind mount a host directory into a container
• podman — drop-in Docker replacement; rootless and daemonless by design; commands are identical to Docker in most cases

Writing a Dockerfile

• FROM ubuntu:22.04 — base image
• RUN apt-get update && apt-get install -y nginx — execute commands during image build
• COPY ./app /var/www/html/ — copy files from build context into image
• ENV APP_ENV=production — set environment variable
• EXPOSE 80 — document which port the container listens on (does not publish)
• CMD ["nginx", "-g", "daemon off;"] — default command to run (can be overridden)
• ENTRYPOINT ["/entrypoint.sh"] — executable that always runs (CMD becomes its arguments)
• docker build -t myapp:1.0 . — build image from Dockerfile in current directory

Inventory & Ad-Hoc Commands

• Inventory file (/etc/ansible/hosts or custom file with -i): groups of hosts in INI or YAML format
• ansible all -m ping — test connectivity to all hosts in inventory
• ansible webservers -m shell -a "df -h" — run shell command on webservers group
• ansible all -m copy -a "src=/etc/hosts dest=/tmp/hosts" — copy file to all hosts
• ansible all -m service -a "name=nginx state=started" — ensure nginx is running
• ansible all -b -m dnf -a "name=httpd state=present" — install httpd (become=sudo)

Playbook Structure

• Playbooks are YAML files defining plays (which hosts to target) and tasks (what to do)
• Key modules: apt/dnf (package management), copy (copy files), template (Jinja2 templates), service (manage services), user (manage users), file (manage file permissions/ownership)
• ansible-playbook site.yml — run a playbook
• ansible-playbook site.yml --check — dry run (shows what would change without changing it)
• ansible-playbook site.yml -v / -vvv — verbose output for debugging
• ansible-playbook site.yml --limit webservers — run only against a specific group

Systematic Troubleshooting Steps

• Step 1 — Service status: systemctl status servicename — shows active/failed state, last 10 log lines, and exit code
• Step 2 — Journal: journalctl -xe -u servicename — full journal with explanations; journalctl --boot -1 — previous boot logs
• Step 3 — Kernel messages: dmesg | tail -50 — recent kernel messages; dmesg | grep -i error
• Step 4 — Resources: check disk (df -h, du -sh /*), memory (free -h), CPU (top, vmstat 1 5), I/O (iostat -x 1 5)
• Step 5 — OOM killer: dmesg | grep -i "out of memory" or grep -i oom /var/log/kern.log — identifies memory-killed processes

Common Failure Scenarios

• Service fails to start: check systemctl status and journalctl -xe for the exact error; often a config file syntax error or missing dependency
• Disk full: df -h to identify full filesystem; du -sh /var/log/* to find large log files; journalctl --vacuum-size=500M to trim journal
• High CPU: top sorted by CPU (P key); ps aux --sort=-%cpu | head
• High memory / swap usage: free -h; vmstat 1 to watch memory pressure; consider increasing swap or identifying memory leaks with ps aux --sort=-%mem
• Cannot SSH to host: check firewall (iptables -L or firewall-cmd --list-all), sshd status, SELinux (getenforce), ss -tlnp | grep 22